Health Markers

Borrelia IgG antibodies are antibodies produced by the immune system in response to exposure to Borrelia bacteria, which are associated with Lyme disease or borreliosis. IgG antibodies usually develop later than IgM antibodies and may remain detectable for an extended period. In this test, IgG can support interpretation of previous exposure or a later immune response, but results should be assessed together with symptoms, tick exposure history, and other relevant clinical information.

Borrelia IgG Antibodies

Borrelia IgM antibodies are antibodies produced as part of an earlier immune response to Borrelia bacteria. IgM may be associated with more recent exposure, but antibody timing can vary, and early infection may not always produce detectable antibodies. Results should be interpreted together with clinical findings, timing of possible tick exposure, and other relevant information.

Borrelia IgM Antibodies

Hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG), particularly as β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA), is a compound that serves two essential functions in the body. It is a crucial intermediate in cholesterol synthesis, which is necessary for producing cell membranes, steroid hormones, and bile acids. Moreover, in the liver, HMG-CoA plays a role in the production of ketone bodies, which act as an alternative energy source during fasting, low-carb diets, or intense exercise when glucose levels are low.

Hydroxymethylglutarate

Homovanillic acid (HVA) is a metabolite that reflects the breakdown of dopamine, a key neurotransmitter in the body. HVA levels serve as a crucial marker for assessing dopamine activity. Variations in HVA can indicate changes in dopamine function and are used to monitor the effectiveness of treatments aimed at dopamine metabolism.

Homovanillic acid

The cholesterol-to-HDL (Chol:HDL) ratio is a measure that reflects the balance between total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in the blood. This ratio is used to assess heart disease risk, with a lower ratio indicating a healthier balance and a reduced risk. It is often considered a more accurate indicator of cardiovascular health than total cholesterol levels alone.

Cholesterol:HDL Ratio

Quinolinic acid is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, which participates in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. It serves as a key excitotoxin in the central nervous system. Elevated levels of quinolinic acid have been associated with neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, epilepsy, and certain psychiatric disorders including depression.

Quinolinic acid

Isocitrate is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle, an essential metabolic pathway for cellular energy production. It is formed from citrate and then converted into α-ketoglutarate, a step that helps generate NADH used for ATP synthesis. Isocitrate also connects multiple metabolic processes, including the production of amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids.

Isocitrate

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a crucial coenzyme found in all living cells. It plays a central role in cellular metabolism, particularly in redox reactions, by cycling between its oxidized form (NAD⁺) and its reduced form (NADH). Beyond energy production, NAD⁺ is vital for cell signaling, DNA repair, and gene expression regulation, making it essential for maintaining cellular health and function.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) is a type of cholesterol often called “good” cholesterol. It helps protect heart health by transporting excess cholesterol from the bloodstream to the liver, where it can be eliminated from the body. Higher HDL levels are linked to a reduced risk of heart disease and stroke.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein)

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is a blood test that measures low levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a key marker of inflammation in the body. Unlike standard CRP tests, hs-CRP can detect subtle inflammation, making it especially useful for assessing the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks and strokes. Elevated hs-CRP levels may signal a higher risk of heart disease, even when other risk factors are absent.

hs-CRP

Xanthurenate is a metabolite produced during the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. Its levels can indicate vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) status, as this vitamin serves as an essential cofactor in the process. Elevated xanthurenate may suggest a vitamin B6 deficiency.

Xanthurenate

HbA1c (Glycated Hemoglobin) is a biomarker that indicates the average blood glucose levels over the past two to three months. It forms when glucose attaches to hemoglobin in red blood cells and serves as a crucial marker for long-term blood sugar control. Elevated HbA1c levels indicate poor glucose management and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.

HbA1c

The PSA ratio, or free-to-total PSA ratio, measures the proportion of free prostate-specific antigen (PSA) compared to total PSA in the blood. It is determined by dividing the free PSA (not bound to proteins) by the total PSA (both free and protein-bound), then multiplying by 100 to express the result as a percentage. This ratio is useful for differentiating between benign prostate conditions and prostate cancer, particularly in men with moderately elevated total PSA levels.

PSA ratio

Succinate is a crucial metabolic intermediate that plays a vital role in the Krebs cycle, the process through which cells generate energy. It assists in converting nutrients into ATP, the main energy source for cellular activities. In addition to energy production, succinate is involved in the synthesis of amino acids and fatty acids and functions as a signaling molecule that affects inflammation and the body's response to low oxygen levels.

Succinate

Globulin is a group of blood proteins that play important roles in the body, including transporting hormones, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. They are also key components of the immune system, with some globulins functioning as antibodies that help defend against infections. Produced by the liver and immune system, globulin levels can provide insight into immune health, liver function, and nutritional status.

Globulin

eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate) is a measure that estimates how well the kidneys filter waste from the blood. It is calculated using serum creatinine levels along with factors like age, body size, and gender. eGFR is a key indicator of kidney function, helping to determine how effectively the kidneys are working. A lower eGFR suggests reduced kidney function, which may indicate kidney disease or damage.

eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate)

Transferrin saturation measures the percentage of transferrin—a blood protein that carries iron—that is actually bound to iron. It helps evaluate how efficiently iron is transported and utilized in the body. This marker is useful for detecting iron deficiency or iron overload and is usually calculated using serum iron and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC). Low levels may indicate iron deficiency, while high levels can point to conditions such as hemochromatosis.

Transferrin Saturation

PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) is a protein produced by the prostate gland and commonly measured in the blood as an indicator of prostate health. Elevated PSA levels may suggest prostate cancer but can also be caused by non-cancerous conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis.

Cis-aconitate is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, a central metabolic pathway involved in cellular energy production. It is formed during the conversion of citrate to isocitrate, a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme aconitase. The Krebs cycle plays a vital role in oxidizing nutrients to produce ATP, the main energy source for cells, and also provides key building blocks for the synthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids.

Cis-aconitate

Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is an enzyme present throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the liver. GGT plays a crucial role in glutathione metabolism, essential for antioxidant defense. It assists in transporting amino acids and peptides across cell membranes. Elevated GGT levels are commonly used as an indicator to detect liver damage, particularly bile duct obstructions and liver conditions associated with alcohol use.

Hematuria, or blood in the urine, is a finding that indicates the presence of red blood cells in the urine. It may be visible, giving the urine a pink, red, or cola-like color, or microscopic, detectable only through laboratory testing. This condition can result from a wide range of causes, from minor issues to serious underlying diseases.

Blood (urine)

Transglutaminase IgG (tTG-IgG) is a blood test that detects IgG antibodies against tissue transglutaminase, an enzyme in the intestinal lining. It is primarily used to help diagnose celiac disease, especially in individuals with IgA deficiency or inconclusive tTG-IgA results, by indicating an immune response to gluten.

Transglutaminase IgG

Anti-Thyroglobulin (A-TG) antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that target thyroglobulin, an essential protein in the thyroid gland responsible for producing thyroid hormones. High levels of A-TG often signal autoimmune thyroid diseases such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or Graves’ disease. These disorders can impact thyroid function and overall health, making A-TG testing crucial for diagnosis and treatment.

A-TG

Glucose is a simple sugar and the main source of energy for the body’s cells. It plays a crucial role in metabolism, supporting brain function, muscle activity, and overall energy production. Blood glucose levels are tightly regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon. Imbalances in glucose levels can lead to conditions like diabetes, hypoglycemia, and hyperglycemia, affecting overall health and requiring proper management.

Glucose

Cystathionine is a non-protein amino acid that acts as an important intermediate in the metabolism of the essential amino acids methionine and cysteine. It plays a key role in the transsulfuration pathway, where homocysteine is converted into cystathionine by the enzyme cystathionine β-synthase (CBS), and cystathionine is then further broken down into cysteine by the enzyme cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE).

Cystathionine

Total protein is a measurement that reflects the combined levels of two major blood proteins — albumin and globulin. Albumin, the most abundant protein in blood plasma, helps maintain oncotic pressure and transports various substances, while globulins play essential roles in immune response, blood clotting, and other functions. Total protein levels offer important insights into nutritional status as well as liver and kidney health.

Total Protein

Citramalate, also referred to as citramalic acid, is a compound measurable as a urinary marker to evaluate metabolic health. It is produced as a metabolic byproduct and may indicate bacterial imbalance or overgrowth in the gut. Elevated levels can also signal potential disruptions in normal metabolic functions.

Citramalate

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme primarily found in the liver that plays a crucial role in protein metabolism and other vital metabolic processes. Elevated ALT levels in the blood may indicate liver cell damage or inflammation, making it a key marker for evaluating liver health.

ALT (SGPT)

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is a naturally occurring compound found in all cells, formed from methionine and ATP. It plays a crucial role in methylation processes, neurotransmitter production that influences mood, joint health, and liver function. SAMe is commonly used as a supplement to support conditions such as depression, osteoarthritis, and liver disorders.

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe)

Malate, or malic acid, is a crucial compound involved in cellular metabolism, particularly within the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria. It plays a vital role in energy production by being converted into oxaloacetate, a process that produces NADH, which is then used to generate ATP, the cell’s primary energy currency.

Malate

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is a key compound in the Krebs cycle, an essential metabolic pathway for energy production in cells. It plays a crucial role in converting nutrients into energy, amino acid metabolism, and nitrogen transport. Additionally, Alpha-ketoglutarate is involved in various cellular processes, including signaling and regulation....

Alpha-ketoglutarate

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) is a blood test that measures the blood’s ability to bind and transport iron via transferrin—the primary iron-carrying protein. It provides an indirect assessment of available transferrin levels and is commonly used in conjunction with other iron tests to evaluate iron deficiency, anemia, or iron overload conditions.

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC)

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in various tissues throughout the body, particularly in the liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system. ALP plays a key role in protein breakdown and dephosphorylation processes. In the liver, it is linked to bile ducts and is commonly used to assist in diagnosing liver and bone diseases. Elevated ALP levels may suggest bile duct obstruction or bone disorders, while low levels can be associated with certain genetic conditions and malnutrition.

ALP (Alkaline phosphatase)

Adipate, also known as adipic acid, is a compound involved in lipid metabolism and acts as a biomarker for metabolic dysfunctions, particularly those related to fatty acid oxidation. Its presence, commonly detected in urine or blood tests, can help diagnose and monitor metabolic conditions.

Adipate

Carnitine is a naturally occurring compound that plays a vital role in energy metabolism. It transports long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they are broken down to generate energy, and helps eliminate metabolic waste from cells. Although the body can produce carnitine in the liver and kidneys, it is also obtained from dietary sources, mainly animal-based foods.

Carnitine

Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is a ketone body that indicates the body’s transition to using fat as its main energy source. Produced by the liver from fatty acids during fasting, carbohydrate restriction, or intense exercise, BHB offers an alternative energy source—especially for the brain—when glucose is scarce. It serves as a key marker of ketosis, a metabolic state linked to fat metabolism.

Beta-hydroxybutyrate

PSA, or Prostate-Specific Antigen, is a protein produced by the prostate gland. Measuring PSA levels in the blood helps screen for prostate health, as elevated levels may indicate prostate cancer. However, higher PSA can also result from non-cancerous conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis.

PSA free

Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a substance produced in the body during the metabolism of certain fats and proteins. It is a byproduct of methionine breakdown and is influenced by vitamin B12 levels. Elevated MMA levels can indicate vitamin B12 deficiency.

Methylmalonic acid (MMA)

Betaine is a compound found in foods such as beets and spinach. It plays key roles in the body by acting as a methyl donor in methylation processes, helping regulate cellular fluid balance, supporting liver health by preventing fat buildup, and lowering homocysteine levels, which contributes to cardiovascular health.

Betaine

EBV VCA is a protein component of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that appears early in the course of infection. Testing for VCA is a key marker for diagnosing both acute and chronic EBV infections.

EBV VCA (Epstein-Barr Virus Viral Capsid Antigen)

Albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and plays a key role in maintaining oncotic pressure, helping to keep fluid within blood vessels. It also binds and transports various substances in the blood, such as hormones, vitamins, and drugs. Produced by the liver, albumin levels in the blood serve as important indicators of liver function and nutritional status.

Albumin

This ratio reflects the conversion of primary bile acids by intestinal bacteria into secondary bile acids. A higher ratio may indicate increased microbial conversion or slowed bile acid turnover, while a lower ratio can reflect reduced bacterial activity or impaired bile flow. Maintaining balance is important for gut–liver communication, lipid metabolism, and overall digestive health.

Secondary / Primary Bile Acids (Ratio)

Ketones are substances produced when the body breaks down fats for energy, especially during low carbohydrate intake such as fasting or following a ketogenic diet. This process, called ketosis, primarily occurs in the liver and produces key ketones like beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone. Ketones serve as an alternative energy source, particularly for the brain, but high levels can indicate serious conditions like diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in people with diabetes.

Ketones

The SAMe/SAH ratio is a measure that reflects the balance between two important compounds in the body — S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) and S-Adenosylhomocysteine (SAH). SAMe acts as a key methyl donor in many biochemical processes, while SAH is produced after SAMe donates a methyl group. A higher SAMe/SAH ratio indicates a strong methylation capacity, which supports healthy cellular function and overall well-being.

SAMe-SAH ratio

Choline is an essential nutrient that plays a crucial role in many vital body functions. It helps maintain the structure of cell membranes, supports the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine for muscle control, memory, and mood, and assists in fat metabolism and liver health. Choline is also important for brain development, neural tube formation during pregnancy, DNA synthesis, and healthy nervous system function.

Choline

3-Hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-kynurenine) is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, reflecting the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan. It acts as an intermediate compound in the conversion of tryptophan into key molecules, including the essential coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).

3-Hydroxykynurenine

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) is a compound produced in the liver from trimethylamine (TMA), which is generated by gut bacteria during the digestion of nutrients like choline, L-carnitine, and phosphatidylcholine. Elevated levels of TMAO have been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney dysfunction, and inflammation. TMAO serves as a valuable marker for assessing metabolic health and the impact of gut microbiota on systemic disease risk. Lifestyle and diet, especially red meat and eggs, can significantly influence TMAO levels. Monitoring TMAO may help identify hidden risks even when other conventional markers appear normal.

Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO)

Trimethylamine (TMA) is a volatile organic compound produced in the gut through bacterial fermentation of dietary nutrients such as choline, L-carnitine, and lecithin. Normally, TMA is quickly converted in the liver to trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which is less toxic. However, elevated TMA levels can indicate imbalances in the gut microbiome or reduced liver detoxification capacity. High TMA is also linked to trimethylaminuria, a rare metabolic disorder that causes a strong body odor. Monitoring TMA offers insights into gut microbial activity, protein metabolism, and liver function.

Trimethylamine

Transferrin is a blood protein responsible for binding and transporting iron throughout the body. It plays a key role in maintaining iron balance by delivering iron to tissues and storing excess iron in a safe form. Transferrin levels typically increase when iron stores are low and decrease when iron stores are high or in cases of chronic illness. Measuring transferrin provides important insights into iron metabolism and related disorders.

Transferrin

Total bile acids represent the combined concentration of all bile acids circulating in the blood. They are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol and play a central role in fat digestion, nutrient absorption, and detoxification. Elevated total bile acid levels may indicate reduced bile flow, liver dysfunction, or impaired reabsorption in the intestine. Normal concentrations indicate balanced bile acid synthesis and efficient liver and intestinal function.

Total Bile Acids

Tertiary bile acids are secondary bile acids that have undergone additional modification in the liver, such as ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA). They are generally considered less cytotoxic and may have protective, anti-inflammatory effects on the liver and bile ducts. Elevated tertiary bile acids can indicate adaptive responses to oxidative or metabolic stress. Adequate levels reflect efficient bile acid recycling and hepatobiliary balance.

Tertiary Bile Acids

SDMA is a methylated derivative of the amino acid arginine and is primarily excreted by the kidneys. Unlike ADMA, SDMA does not directly inhibit nitric oxide synthase but reflects similar metabolic and renal processes. Elevated SDMA levels can indicate reduced kidney clearance or altered amino acid metabolism. Stable or optimal SDMA values suggest efficient kidney function and normal arginine turnover.

SDMA (Symmetric Dimethylarginine)

Primary bile acids – cholic acid (CA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) – are produced in the liver and represent the first step in bile acid metabolism. They are essential for emulsifying dietary fats and enabling the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Elevated levels can indicate altered bile acid synthesis or cholestasis, while low levels may suggest reduced hepatic production or bile flow. Balanced concentrations reflect normal liver function and bile acid turnover.

Primary Bile Acids (CA, CDCA)

Neopterin is a molecule produced by immune cells, especially macrophages, in response to stimulation by interferon-gamma. It serves as a marker of immune system activation and inflammation. Elevated neopterin levels in urine or blood can indicate increased immune activity, commonly seen in infections, autoimmune diseases, or chronic inflammatory conditions. Since it reflects the cellular immune response, neopterin is sometimes used to track disease progression or the status of the immune system.

Neopterin

Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid produced during the metabolism of methionine, an essential amino acid. It plays a key role in methylation, detoxification, and cardiovascular function. Elevated homocysteine levels have been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, cognitive decline, and pregnancy complications. Imbalances may result from deficiencies in B vitamins (especially B6, B12, and folate), impaired methylation, or genetic variants such as MTHFR. Monitoring homocysteine levels can provide valuable insights into cardiovascular, neurological, and metabolic health.

Homocysteine

Histamine is a bioactive compound derived from the amino acid histidine and plays key roles in immune defense, stomach acid secretion, and inflammatory responses.  
In the bloodstream, histamine reflects both mast cell activity and the body’s ability to break down histamine via enzymes such as DAO and HNMT.  
Elevated histamine levels may indicate immune activation, allergic response, or reduced histamine breakdown capacity.  
Low or balanced histamine concentrations suggest normal regulation of histamine metabolism and immune function.

Histamine

This ratio represents the relationship between more cytotoxic bile acids (e.g., lithocholic and deoxycholic acid) and protective bile acids such as ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA).  
An elevated ratio may suggest increased oxidative or inflammatory stress in the liver or gut environment.  
A lower ratio, with higher levels of neuroprotective bile acids, indicates better bile acid homeostasis and reduced cellular stress.  
Balanced values support optimal liver detoxification and metabolic resilience.

Cytotoxic / Neuroprotective Bile Acids (Ratio)

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found in the liver, heart, muscles, and other tissues. It is released into the bloodstream when cells are damaged, making it a useful marker for assessing liver injury and other tissue damage. Elevated AST levels are often seen in liver conditions such as hepatitis or fatty liver disease but can also indicate muscle injury or heart disease. AST is typically interpreted together with alanine aminotransferase (ALT) to better evaluate the type and extent of liver damage.

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)

ADMA is a naturally occurring inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), the enzyme that produces nitric oxide (NO), a crucial molecule for vascular tone and endothelial function. Elevated ADMA levels can decrease nitric oxide availability, potentially impacting blood vessel dilation and circulation. Higher concentrations have been linked to endothelial dysfunction and impaired regulation of blood flow. Low or balanced ADMA levels generally indicate healthy nitric oxide production and proper vascular function.

ADMA (Asymmetric Dimethylarginine)

Urinary protein, also known as proteinuria, refers to the presence of an abnormal amount of protein in the urine. Proteins, such as albumin, are vital components of blood, but they're not normally found in urine in significant amounts. The presence of protein in urine can be an indicator of kidney damage or disease, as healthy kidneys typically prevent significant protein loss through urine.


Protein (urine)

Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in the bloodstream and act as a primary form of energy storage. Excess calories from food are converted into triglycerides and stored in fat cells, then released by hormones for energy between meals. High triglyceride levels, especially when combined with high LDL or low HDL cholesterol, are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke.

Triglycerides

Urinary nitrates are chemical compounds usually absent or present only in trace amounts in urine. Their presence can indicate a bacterial infection, such as a urinary tract infection (UTI), because certain bacteria can convert urinary nitrite into nitrate. Nitrate testing is a common diagnostic tool for detecting UTIs.

Nitrates (urine)

The measurement of histamine in stool is a diagnostic test used to evaluate gastrointestinal conditions. Histamine is a compound involved in immune responses and inflammation. Elevated histamine levels in stool may indicate allergic reactions, infections, or disorders affecting the gut’s immune system. Monitoring histamine in stool can help assess digestive health and guide treatment plans.

LDL-HDL Ratio

Pyruvate is a key compound in cellular metabolism formed as the end product of glycolysis when glucose is broken down. It plays a central role in energy production by entering the citric acid cycle under oxygen-rich conditions. When oxygen levels are low, such as during intense exercise, pyruvate is converted into lactate to support continued ATP (energy) production. Additionally, pyruvate is involved in gluconeogenesis and serves as a precursor for amino acid synthesis.

Pyruvate

ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase): ALT is an enzyme primarily found in the liver, where it aids in protein metabolism. When liver cells are damaged or inflamed, ALT is released into the bloodstream, causing its levels to rise. Measuring ALT is a common way to assess liver health, as elevated levels may indicate liver injury or disease, while normal levels usually reflect healthy liver function.

ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase)

Kynurenic acid is a metabolite produced in the kynurenine pathway during the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan. It acts as a neuroprotective agent in the nervous system and is a focus of neurological and psychiatric research. Imbalances in kynurenic acid levels have been linked to disorders such as schizophrenia and depression.

Kynurenic acid

Suberic acid, also known as octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid that functions as a metabolic marker in the body. In biological and physiological contexts, it is primarily linked to fatty acid metabolism. Elevated suberic acid levels can indicate metabolic disorders, especially those involving fatty acid oxidation, such as medium-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency.

Suberic acid

Amylase is an enzyme that aids digestion, produced by the pancreas and salivary glands. Its main role is to break down complex carbohydrates—such as starches and glycogen—into simpler sugars like maltose and glucose, which the body can easily absorb.

Amylase

IDO (Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase) is an enzyme involved in metabolizing the amino acid tryptophan through the kynurenine pathway. By depleting tryptophan, it can modulate immune responses, a mechanism that some tumors may use to evade immune detection. IDO is also linked to psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders and is affected by inflammation and stress.

IDO (enzyme)

Urea is a waste product produced in the liver from the breakdown of proteins. Once formed, it is transported to the kidneys and ultimately expelled in the urine. Measuring urea levels in the blood, often referred to as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), is a common test used to assess kidney function. Elevated blood urea levels may indicate impaired kidney function or other problems affecting waste processing and elimination.

Urea

Urine density, also known as urine specific gravity, measures the concentration of solutes in urine. It indicates the kidney’s ability to concentrate or dilute urine and serves as a marker of hydration status and kidney function. Although normal values can vary, abnormalities may signal dehydration, overhydration, or underlying kidney conditions.

Urine density

Creatine Kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in the heart, brain, skeletal muscles, and other tissues. Elevated CK levels in the blood indicate muscle damage, as the enzyme is released when muscle cells are injured. There are different forms of CK, including CK-MM found in skeletal muscle, CK-MB mainly in the heart, and CK-BB typically in the brain. Measuring CK levels is valuable for diagnosing and monitoring muscle damage, such as that caused by a heart attack (myocardial infarction).

CK (Creatine Kinase)

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all the body’s cells and is essential for producing hormones, vitamin D, and digestive substances. While the body produces all the cholesterol it needs, it is also found in animal-based foods such as meat and dairy. There are two main types: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which can contribute to plaque buildup in the arteries, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or “good” cholesterol, which helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream.

Total Cholesterol

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are immune proteins that mistakenly attack thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme vital for producing thyroid hormones. High levels of A-TPO antibodies are commonly linked to autoimmune thyroid conditions such as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease, which can result in either an underactive or overactive thyroid and impact overall health.

A-TPO

GOT, or Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT), is an enzyme present in various tissues throughout the body, with the highest concentrations found in the liver. It plays a crucial role in glutathione metabolism, which is an essential antioxidant, and is involved in the transport of amino acids across cell membranes. GOT is commonly measured through blood tests and serves as an important indicator of liver and biliary tract function.

Ethyl malonate (EM) is a compound that functions as a biomarker for certain metabolic disorders. Elevated levels of ethyl malonate in the body may indicate inherited metabolic conditions, such as ethylmalonic encephalopathy, or disruptions in fatty acid oxidation.

Ethyl malonate

EBNA IgG is a marker indicating the presence of antibodies against the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen (EBNA), a protein produced during the later stages of infection. The presence of EBNA IgG antibodies typically signifies a past infection, as these antibodies develop several weeks to months after the initial infection and usually remain detectable for life. Testing for EBNA IgG is often performed alongside VCA antibodies to distinguish between current and past infections and to assess the stage of the infection.

EBNA (Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen)

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system that target thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme essential for thyroid hormone production. Elevated levels of A-TPO antibodies may indicate autoimmune thyroid disorders, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Graves' disease, which can disrupt thyroid function and affect overall health.

D-dimer

Creatinine is a compound produced through muscle metabolism and serves as a key indicator of kidney function. It is formed from creatine, a molecule essential for muscle energy production, and is filtered from the blood by the kidneys before being eliminated in urine.

Creatinine

Kynurenine is a key metabolite in the breakdown of the essential amino acid tryptophan. It serves as a precursor to several important compounds, including the neuroprotective kynurenic acid and the neurotoxic quinolinic acid, and plays a crucial role in various physiological and pathological processes in the body.

Kynurenine

Non-HDL cholesterol is a measure of all cholesterol types that can contribute to arterial plaque buildup, including LDL (low-density lipoprotein), VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), and other atherogenic lipid particles. It is calculated by subtracting HDL (high-density lipoprotein), or "good" cholesterol, from total cholesterol. Non-HDL cholesterol is considered a more comprehensive indicator of cardiovascular risk than LDL cholesterol alone, as it reflects all harmful cholesterol particles.


Non-HDL Cholesterol

Urobilinogen in urine is a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown, formed in the intestines from bilirubin and excreted in the urine. It is normally present in low concentrations and serves as an indicator of liver function and health. Abnormally high or low levels may suggest liver disease or blood-related conditions.

Urobilinogen (urine)

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) is a type of cholesterol often called “bad” cholesterol. It transports cholesterol particles through the bloodstream, and elevated levels can lead to plaque buildup in the arteries. This buildup, known as atherosclerosis, can narrow and harden the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.

LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)

Urinary leukocytes are white blood cells found in urine. They are usually absent or present in very small amounts, and elevated levels often indicate infection or inflammation in the urinary tract or kidneys. Detecting them is an important indicator for diagnosing urinary tract infections (UTIs) and other kidney-related conditions.

Leukocytes (urine)

KMO (Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase) is an enzyme that plays a key role in the kynurenine pathway, responsible for metabolizing the amino acid tryptophan. It helps regulate the balance of metabolites within this pathway, influencing processes that can affect brain health. KMO activity has been linked to neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and schizophrenia.

KMO (enzyme)

Lactate, also known as lactic acid, is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism—the process of breaking down glucose for energy without enough oxygen, often during intense exercise. It is associated with muscle fatigue and the familiar “burn” feeling during strenuous activity. Lactate also plays a role in the Cori cycle, where it is converted back into glucose in the liver.

Lactate

Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) is a metabolite produced from the breakdown of catecholamines such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. It is used as a clinical marker to evaluate catecholamine activity, with levels usually measured in urine. Various factors, including certain foods and medications, can affect VMA levels.

Vanillylmandelic acid

5-Hydroxyindoleacetate (5-HIAA) is a measurement that reflects the breakdown of serotonin, an important neurotransmitter in the body. It is mainly used as a clinical marker, especially for detecting and monitoring carcinoid tumors that may produce excess serotonin. Urinary 5-HIAA levels can also serve as an approximate indicator of the body’s overall serotonin levels.

5-Hydroxyindoleacetate

Bilirubin is a yellow compound that results from the breakdown of red blood cells in the body. It is transported to the liver, where it is processed and excreted into the bile. Proper liver function ensures bilirubin is efficiently filtered from the blood and converted into a form that can be eliminated through the digestive system. Blood bilirubin levels are an important indicator of liver health, bile duct function, and red blood cell turnover.

Bilirubin

Citrate is a compound that plays a key role in the citric acid cycle, essential for energy production in aerobic organisms. It helps break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce ATP (energy). Citrate also supports the regulation of the body’s acid-base balance and contributes to kidney stone prevention by binding with calcium.

Citrate

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Borrelia IgG Antibodies

Description

Tests containing this item